Key Issues in
English for Specific Purposes (ESP) Curriculum Development
Based on
insights gained from developing the curriculum for Language Preparation for
Employment in the Health Sciences and a review of the literature on ESP, this
paper is intended to offer theoretical support for ESL instructors developing
ESP curricula for ESL contexts.
Background
Information and Statement of Purpose
In late 1999,
I was asked to develop a content-based curriculum for a ten-week course for a
select group of immigrants living in Ottawa, Canada. The course was held at
Algonquin College of Applied Arts and Technology and was funded by the Language
for Employment Related Needs Project (LERN). The curriculum consisted of two
distinct phases: language delivery and employment awareness. Although the
employment awareness phase (independently developed and delivered by Local
Agencies Serving Immigrants) was an integral component of the program, the
focus of this paper is on insights gained from the language-delivery phase.
Dudley Evans
and St. John (1998) identify five key roles for the ESP practitioner:
teacher
course
designer and materials provider
collaborator
researcher
evaluator.
It is the role
of ESP practitioner as course designer and materials provider that this paper
addresses. The premise of this paper is based on David Nunan's observations
about the teacher as a curriculum developer.
It seems
fairly obvious that if teachers are to be the ones responsible for developing
the curriculum, they need the time, the skills and the support to do so.
Support may include curriculum models and guidelines · and may include support
from individuals acting in a curriculum advisory position. The provision of
such support cannot be removed and must not be seen in isolation, from the
curriculum (Nunan, 1987, p. 75).
Nunan
recognized that issues of time, skills and support are key for teachers faced
with the very real task of developing curricula. The intent of this paper is to
provide the ESL instructor as ESP course designer and materials provider with
theoretical support. This paper begins with a discussion of the origins of ESP.
Some key notions about ESP are then addressed:
absolute and
variable characteristics
types of ESP
characteristics
of ESP courses
the meaning of
the word 'special' in ESP
Key issues in
ESP curriculum design are suggested: a) abilities required for successful
communication in occupational settings; b)content language aquisition versus
general language aquisition; c) heterogeneous versus homogenous learner group;
and d) materials development.
The Origins of
ESP
Certainly, a
great deal about the origins of ESP could be written. Notably, there are three
reasons common to the emergence of all ESP: the demands of a Brave New World, a
revolution in linguistics, and focus on the learner (Hutchinson & Waters,
1987).
Hutchinson and
Waters (1987) note that two key historical periods breathed life into ESP.
First, the end of the Second World War brought with it an " ... age of
enormous and unprecedented expansion in scientific, technical and economic
activity on an international scale · for various reasons, most notably the
economic power of the United States in the post-war world, the role [of
international language] fell to English" (p. 6). Second, the Oil Crisis of
the early 1970s resulted in Western money and knowledge flowing into the oil-rich
countries. The language of this knowledge became English.
The general
effect of all this development was to exert pressure on the language teaching
profession to deliver the required goods. Whereas English had previously
decided its own destiny, it now became subject to the wishes, needs and demands
of people other than language teachers (Hutchinson & Waters, 1987, p.7).
The second key
reason cited as having a tremendous impact on the emergence of ESP was a
revolution in linguistics. Whereas traditional linguists set out to describe
the features of language, revolutionary pioneers in linguistics began to focus
on the ways in which language is used in real communication. Hutchinson and
Waters (1987) point out that one significant discovery was in the ways that
spoken and written English vary. In other words, given the particular context
in which English is used, the variant of English will change. This idea was
taken one step farther. If language in different situations varies, then
tailoring language instruction to meet the needs of learners in specific
contexts is also possible. Hence, in the late 1960s and the early 1970s there
were many attempts to describe English for Science and Technology (EST).
Hutchinson and Waters (1987) identify Ewer and Latorre, Swales, Selinker and
Trimble as a few of the prominent descriptive EST pioneers.
The final
reason Hutchinson and Waters (1987) cite as having influenced the emergence of
ESP has less to do with linguistics and everything to do psychology. Rather
than simply focus on the method of language delivery, more attention was given
to the ways in which learners acquire language and the differences in the ways
language is acquired. Learners were seen to employ different learning
strategies, use different skills, enter with different learning schemata, and
be motivated by different needs and interests. Therefore, focus on the
learners' needs became equally paramount as the methods employed to disseminate
linguistic knowledge. Designing specific courses to better meet these
individual needs was a natural extension of this thinking. To this day, the
catchword in ESL circles is learner-centered or learning-centered.
Key Notions
About ESP
In this
discussion, four key notions will be discussed. They are as follows: a) the
distinctions between the absolute and variable characteristics of ESP, b) types
of ESP, c) characteristics of ESP courses, and d) the meaning of the word
'special' in ESP.
Absolute and
Variable Characteristics of ESP
Ten years
later, theorists Dudley-Evans and St John (1998) modified Strevens' original
definition of ESP to form their own. Let us begin with Strevens. He defined ESP
by identifying its absolute and variable characteristics. Strevens' (1988)
definition makes a distinction between four absolute and two variable
characteristics:
I. Absolute
characteristics:
ESP consists
of English language teaching which is:
designed to
meet specified needs of the learner;
related in
content (i.e. in its themes and topics) to particular disciplines, occupations
and activities;
centred on the
language appropriate to those activities in syntax, lexis, discourse,
semantics, etc., and analysis of this discourse;
in contrast
with General English.
II. Variable
characteristics:
ESP may be,
but is not necessarily:
restricted as
to the language skills to be learned (e.g. reading only);
not taught
according to any pre-ordained methodology (pp.1-2).
Anthony (1997)
notes that there has been considerable recent debate about what ESP means
despite the fact that it is an approach which has been widely used over the
last three decades. At a 1997 Japan Conference on ESP, Dudley-Evans offered a
modified definition. The revised definition he and St. John postulate is as
follows:
I. Absolute
Characteristics
ESP is defined
to meet specific needs of the learner;
ESP makes use
of the underlying methodology and activities of the discipline it serves;
ESP is centred
on the language (grammar, lexis, register), skills, discourse and genres
appropriate to these activities.
II. Variable
Characteristics
ESP may be
related to or designed for specific disciplines;
ESP may use,
in specific teaching situations, a different methodology from that of general
English;
ESP is likely
to be designed for adult learners, either at a tertiary level institution or in
a professional work situation. It could, however, be for learners at secondary
school level;
ESP is
generally designed for intermediate or advanced students;
Most ESP
courses assume some basic knowledge of the language system, but it can be used
with beginners (1998, pp. 4-5).
Dudley-Evans
and St. John have removed the absolute characteristic that 'ESP is in contrast
with General English' and added more variable characteristics. They assert that
ESP is not necessarily related to a specific discipline. Furthermore, ESP is
likely to be used with adult learners although it could be used with young
adults in a secondary school setting.
As for a
broader definition of ESP, Hutchinson and Waters (1987) theorize, "ESP is
an approach to language teaching in which all decisions as to content and
method are based on the learner's reason for learning" (p. 19). Anthony
(1997) notes that, it is not clear where ESP courses end and general English
courses begin; numerous non-specialist ESL instructors use an ESP approach in
that their syllabi are based on analysis of learner needs and their own
personal specialist knowledge of using English for real communication.
Types of ESP
David Carter
(1983) identifies three types of ESP:
English as a
restricted language
English for
Academic and Occupational Purposes
English with
specific topics.
The language
used by air traffic controllers or by waiters are examples of English as a
restricted language. Mackay and Mountford (1978) clearly illustrate the
difference between restricted language and language with this statement:
... the
language of international air-traffic control could be regarded as 'special',
in the sense that the repertoire required by the controller is strictly limited
and can be accurately determined situationally, as might be the linguistic
needs of a dining-room waiter or air-hostess. However, such restricted
repertoires are not languages, just as a tourist phrase book is not grammar.
Knowing a restricted 'language' would not allow the speaker to communicate
effectively in novel situation, or in contexts outside the vocational
environment (pp. 4-5).
The second
type of ESP identified by Carter (1983) is English for Academic and
Occupational Purposes. In the 'Tree of ELT' (Hutchinson & Waters, 1987),
ESP is broken down into three branches: a) English for Science and Technology
(EST), b) English for Business and Economics (EBE), and c) English for Social
Studies (ESS). Each of these subject areas is further divided into two
branches: English for Academic Purposes (EAP) and English for Occupational
Purposes (EOP). An example of EOP for the EST branch is 'English for
Technicians' whereas an example of EAP for the EST branch is 'English for
Medical Studies'.
Hutchinson and
Waters (1987) do note that there is not a clear-cut distinction between EAP and
EOP: "· people can work and study simultaneously; it is also likely that
in many cases the language learnt for immediate use in a study environment will
be used later when the student takes up, or returns to, a job" (p. 16).
Perhaps this explains Carter's rationale for categorizing EAP and EOP under the
same type of ESP. It appears that Carter is implying that the end purpose of
both EAP and EOP are one in the same: employment. However, despite the end
purpose being identical, the means taken to achieve the end is very different
indeed. I contend that EAP and EOP are different in terms of focus on Cummins'
(1979) notions of cognitive academic proficiency versus basic interpersonal
skills. This is examined in further detail below.
The third and
final type of ESP identified by Carter (1983) is English with specific topics.
Carter notes that it is only here where emphasis shifts from purpose to topic.
This type of ESP is uniquely concerned with anticipated future English needs
of, for example, scientists requiring English for postgraduate reading studies,
attending conferences or working in foreign institutions. However, I argue that
this is not a separate type of ESP. Rather it is an integral component of ESP
courses or programs which focus on situational language. This situational
language has been determined based on the interpretation of results from needs
analysis of authentic language used in target workplace settings.
Characteristics
of ESP Courses
The
characteristics of ESP courses identified by Carter (1983) are discussed here.
He states that there are three features common to ESP courses: a) authentic
material, b) purpose-related orientation, and c) self-direction.
If we revisit
Dudley-Evans' (1997) claim that ESP should be offered at an intermediate or
advanced level, use of authentic learning materials is entirely feasible.
Closer examination of ESP materials will follow; suffice it to say at this
juncture that use of authentic content materials, modified or unmodified in form,
are indeed a feature of ESP, particularly in self-directed study and research
tasks. For Language Preparation for Employment in the Health Sciences, a large
component of the student evaluation was based on an independent study
assignment in which the learners were required to investigate and present an
area of interest. The students were encouraged to conduct research using a
variety of different resources, including the Internet.
Purpose-related
orientation refers to the simulation of communicative tasks required of the
target setting. Carter (1983) cites student simulation of a conference,
involving the preparation of papers, reading, notetaking, and writing. At
Algonquin College, English for business courses have involved students in the
design and presentation of a unique business venture, including market
research, pamphlets and logo creation. The students have presented all final
products to invited ESL classes during a poster presentation session. For our
health science program, students attended a seminar on improving your listening
skills. They practiced listening skills, such as listening with empathy, and
then employed their newly acquired skills during a fieldtrip to a local
community centre where they were partnered up with English-speaking residents.
Finally,
self-direction is characteristic of ESP courses in that the " ... point of
including self-direction ... is that ESP is concerned with turning learners
into users" (Carter, 1983, p. 134). In order for self-direction to occur,
the learners must have a certain degree of freedom to decide when, what, and
how they will study. Carter (1983) also adds that there must be a systematic
attempt by teachers to teach the learners how to learn by teaching them about
learning strategies. Is it necessary, though, to teach high-ability learners
such as those enrolled in the health science program about learning strategies?
I argue that it is not. Rather, what is essential for these learners is
learning how to access information in a new culture.
The Meaning of
the Word 'Special' in ESP
One simple
clarification will be made here: special language and specialized aim are two
entirely different notions. It was Perren (1974) who noted that confusion
arises over these two notions. If we revisit Mackay and Mountford's restricted
repertoire, we can better understand the idea of a special language. Mackay and
Mountford (1978) state:
The only
practical way in which we can understand the notion of special language is as a
restricted repertoire of words and expressions selected from the whole language
because that restricted repertoire covers every requirement within a
well-defined context, task or vocation (p. 4).
On the other
hand, a specialized aim refers to the purpose for which learners learn a
language, not the nature of the language they learn (Mackay & Mountford,
1978). Consequently, the focus of the word 'special' in ESP ought to be on the
purpose for which learners learn and not on the specific jargon or registers
they learn.
Key Issues in
ESP Curriculum Design
In this
section, key issues in ESP curriculum design for ESL contexts are examined. The
issues explored here are a product of my professional experience developing the
curriculum for Language Preparation for Employment in the Health Sciences. This
experience has been supported with a review of the literature on ESP.
Abilities
Required for Successful Communication in Occupational Settings
Cummins (1979)
theorized a dichotomy between basic interpersonal communication skills (BICS)
and cognitive academic language proficiency (CALP). The former refers to the
language skills used in the everyday informal language used with friends,
family and co-workers. The latter refers to a language proficiency required to
make sense of and use academic language. Situations in which individuals use
BICS are characterized by contexts that provide relatively easy access to
meaning. However, CALP use occurs in contexts that offer fewer contextual
clues.
After having
developed and taught the curriculum for Language Preparation for Employment in
the Health Sciences, I have reached the conclusion that there are three
abilities necessary for successful communication in a professional target
setting. I have added a third skill or ability to Cummins' theory in order to
complete the ESP picture.
The first
ability required in order to successfully communicate in an occupational
setting is the ability to use the particular jargon characteristic of that
specific occupational context. The second is the ability to use a more
generalized set of academic skills, such as conducting research and responding
to memoranda. With the health science group, this was largely related to
understanding a new culture. The third is the ability to use the language of
everyday informal talk to communicate effectively, regardless of occupational
context. Examples of this include chatting over coffee with a colleague or
responding to an informal email message.
The task for
the ESP developer is to ensure that all three of these abilities are integrated
into and integrated in the curriculum. This is a difficult task due to the
incredible amount of research required. Close collaboration between content
experts and the curriculum developer was not possible during the development
stages for the health science curriculum. In retrospect, the experience and
knowledge of health science faculty would have lessened the workload in this
area tremendously. Fortunately, there does exist a wealth of information on
academic and general language skills. The trick involved in the interweaving
process is to develop a model that best integrates the restricted repertoire
with the academic and general for the learners in question.
In the case of
Language Preparation for Employment in the Health Sciences, there were so many
possible potential future occupational settings to research and I had to cope
with limited development time. I simply opted to identify academic skills that
were transferable to most health science occupational settings. This required
an inventory of all possible health science occupations, identification of the
past occupational experiences of the learners in the pilot program, and
identification of academic language skills. All of this information was then
cross-referenced with the general language objectives for the identified group
of learners.
It is my
opinion that because ESP requires comprehensive needs analysis and because the
learning-centred curriculum is not static, it is impossible to expect that the
developer be in a position to identify the perfect balance of the abilities
noted above for any particular group of learners. In reality, a large part of
this responsibility is that of the instructors; it is the instructors who are
in the best position to identify changing learner needs and who are in the best
position to ensure that all students receive a balanced diet of language.
Content
Language Acquisition Versus General Language Acquisition
When I first
received the proposal for the health science pilot program, the ratio of
content to language instruction had already been identified: 2 hours of content
lecture for every 23 hours of language/content instruction. Given this starting
point, one of the central questions that needed to be answered was how much
time would be devoted to vocabulary and content knowledge acquisition, as
opposed to the time spent developing general and academic language skills.
Although a
tentative balance was drafted prior to classroom delivery, the balance shifted
on a daily basis. In the end, it was determined by both instructors that more
time need be allotted for pure content and more time need be created for
team-taught activities. The final weekly breakdown of 25 hours consisted of the
following:
8 hours of
Integrated Language Learning (ESL instructor)
6 hours of
Health Science Lectures (content instructor)
4 hours of
Workplace Communication (jointly facilitated)
3 hours of
Medical terminology (content instructor)
2 hours of
Pathophysiology (content instructor)
2 hours of
Applied Computer Skills (ESL instructor)
The first
thing that is apparent from this breakdown, is that time devoted to developing
general language and academic skills far outweighs the time devoted to the
acquisition of content knowledge. However, it was recommended that the content
instructor be present for a considerable more amount of time; it was observed
that there was such an overlap between content knowledge, academic proficiency,
and general language that we could better interweave many of the activities as
a team.
The learners
indicated that they desired more opportunity to interact with the content
instructor, in addition to attending the old-style lecture format. Indeed, both
instructors noted that the students were highly motivated to attend the content
lectures and yet additional support from the ESL instructor was required
because, in order to meet the learners' needs, we could not teach the
restricted repertoire in isolation. What is more, it was highly unreasonable to
assume that the content instructor would take on the role of ESL instructor.
Finally, it
was observed that the majority of the students with post-secondary training in
the health sciences possessed a basic knowledge of Greco-Latino terminology.
Consequently, we determined that less time would be devoted to learning
terminology in order to follow the content lectures. Most of the students could
already recognize meaning, but not produce it. It was determined that more time
should be allotted for work on pronunciation and learning the spelling of
health science terminology. Moreover, much more time would be spent on
communication for the workplace; in this way, they students would be afforded
ample opportunity to integrate and practice the restricted repertoire acquired
in content lectures and the everyday language acquired in the language classes.
Heterogeneous
Learner Group Versus Homogeneous Learner Group
There are a
number of variables which characterize a heterogeneous learner group. I argue
that variations in language level, prior education and work experience can be
accommodated only to a certain extent. Minimum entrance standards must be
established in the areas of language level, motivation, and prior education and
experience. Most importantly, these standards must be strictly enforced at the
time of placement.
Due to the
limited time frame for the development of the health science pilot program
curriculum and the fact that the program was scheduled to begin in the middle
of the academic term, the minimum general language entrance requirement was
dropped from high to low intermediate in order to generate a large enough pool
of suitable candidates. Although no pre or post-test was to be administered by
evaluation team, I was required to recruit twice the number of students to be
admitted to the program: 20 students would be in the pilot group and 20 would
be in the control group. In the end, 16 students formed each group. The result
was that there were some genuinely intermediate students mixed in with a
majority of high intermediate, and a few advanced students.
Based on
observations of a four-week English for Business course, Yogman and Kaylani
(1996) conclude that there appears to be a minimum proficiency level that is
required for students to participate in predominately content-related
activities. This supports my finding that those students who were struggling to
catch up with general language proficiency simply found the content activities
to be overwhelming.
One student in
the health science program commented that she had to learn both the language
and the content at the time. This particular student was at such a disadvantage
because, whereas the other students were doctors and dentists, she had no prior
education or work experience in health science. Another student was an
experienced doctor, but possessed a very low level of language proficiency.
Either case would have been frustrating for anyone. One strategy we began to
employ was to have the intermediate students focus on developing their
listening skills during the content lecture. Those students without the
background knowledge, who possessed the language skills, were to ask for
clarification from their peers or instructors. The advanced students were
encouraged to record as much detail as possible, carry out supplemental reading
that pertained to the lecture topics and to assist their peers whenever
possible.
Materials
Development
Do ESP
textbooks really exist? This is central question Johns (1990) addresses. One of
the core dilemmas he presents is that "ESP teachers find themselves in a
situation where they are expected to produce a course that exactly matches the
needs of a group of learners, but are expected to do so with no, or very
limited, preparation time" (Johns, 1990, p. 91).
In the real
world, many ESL instructors/ESP developers are not provided with ample time for
needs analysis, materials research and materials development. There are many
texts which claim to meet the needs of ESP courses. Johns (1990) comments that
no one ESP text can live up to its name. He suggests that the only real
solution is that a resource bank of pooled materials be made available to all
ESP instructors (Johns, 1990). The only difference between this resource bank
and the one that is available in every educational setting -- teachers' filing
cabinets -- is that this one is to include cross-indexed doable, workable
content-based (amongst other) resources.
It is my
experience that this suggestion is not doable. If teachers are so pressed for
time, will they have the time to submit and cross-index resources? Rather, I
believe that there is value in all texts - some more than others. Familiarizing
oneself with useful instructional materials is part of growing as a teacher,
regardless of the nature of purpose for learning. Given that ESP is an approach
and not a subject to be taught, curricular materials will unavoidably be pieced
together, some borrowed and others designed specially. Resources will include
authentic materials, ESL materials, ESP materials, and teacher-generated
materials.
Note that an
excellent point of departure for novice ESP curriculum developers is with lists
of ESL publishers which have been made publicly available on-line. Browsing
publishers' sites takes a few minutes, review copies can be requested
immediately and copies can be sent express.
Concluding
Remarks
This paper has
discussed the origins of ESP, addressed key notions about ESP and examined
issues in ESP curriculum design. The content of the paper was determined by a
need identified based on my professional experience as an ESL instructor
designing and delivering the content-based language program - Language
Preparation for Employment in the Health Sciences. These issues, where
possible, have been supported by current and pertinent academic literature. It
is my sincerest hope that these observations will lend insight into the
challenges facing the ESL instructor acting as ESP curriculum developer.
Selected
References
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The Internet
TESL Journal, Vol. VII, No. 10, October 2001
http://iteslj.org/
http://iteslj.org/Articles/Gatehouse-ESP.html
Some Issues in
Teaching English for Specific Purposes (ESP)
Kornelia
Choroleeva, Bulgaria
Kornelia Choroleeva is a senior lecturer at the University of Food
Technologies, Bulgaria. She is interested in ELT methods, English for Specific
Purposes, translation theory and practice, and sociolinguistics.
Menu
Introduction
Language learners’ needs
Classroom activities
Conclusion
References
Introduction
Linguists’ acknowledgement of the importance of
English language learners’ purposes and needs with respect to the learning
process has led to the development of the field of study known as English for
Specific Purposes (ESP). Teachers and researchers dealing with ESP are
interested in the peculiarities of the English language determined by the
profession or branch of science where the language learners will function as
second language users. Thus, it is possible to distinguish among English for
Law, English for Tourism, Medical English, Business English, etc.
This subdivision of the English language is useful because
it draws the attention to the fact that language cannot be taught or mastered
in its entirety. That is why, an assertion of the type “I know Spanish” or “I
speak perfect Spanish” is not only bold but also utterly fallacious because
even native speakers cannot be deemed “to know” their mother tongue. Moreover,
languages are not rigid constructs and are constantly subject to change.
The hierarchy of types of Special English presupposes
the existence of language variations. Regionally or socially determined
language variations are referred to as dialects. Degrees of formality account
for stylistic differences. The combination of real-life situations where a language
is used is characterized by “a special set of vocabulary (technical
terminology) associated with a profession or occupation or other defined social
group” [Spolsky: 33] which constitutes a specific jargon. This combination of
situations, also termed domain, depends on social factors, namely the place
where the interaction takes place, the topic, and the roles assumed by the
interactants [ibid.].
Gramley and Pätzold [1992] point out that varieties of
English are instances of registers which are classified mainly on the basis of
field of discourse and purpose. Fields are determined by situations of use and
can be subdivided almost ad infinitum,
e.g.: science > natural science > biology > molecular biology, organic
biology, cell biology, etc. This means that the boundaries of fields are quite
elastic. The classification of Special English founded on purpose gives subtypes
such as English for Occupational Purposes and English for Academic Purposes.
English for Science and Technology belongs to the latter.
Language learners’
needs
The study of language varieties narrows down the focus
of linguistic enquiry, from which both teachers and language learners can
benefit. Ideally, by identifying the domain where language is used, e.g.: the
home, the workplace, the university, etc., including the social factors
mentioned above, teachers will acquire an idea of what to teach and how to
teach it. In the case of ESP, it should be kept in mind that Special English,
albeit different from the so-called General English in terms of preference of
some grammatical structures to others, stylistic characteristics, and field-specific
vocabulary, has nevertheless inherited the patterns of word formation,
syntactic and discourse organization from the larger system of language. This
implies that: 1) the distinction between Special English and General English is
not as clear-cut as it seems to be, and 2) the groundwork behind teaching ESP
is provided by teaching English as a Second Language (TESL) and as a Foreign
Language (TEFL).
All problems stemming from the questions as to what to
teach and how to teach it apply both to teaching General English and teaching Special
English. The difference is probably in the degree of problematicity. With ESP,
these two questions are further complicated. The choice of content relevant to
the purposes of learning becomes more difficult to make, partly because
language teachers usually do not possess inside knowledge of the profession or
science in which the language learners will function as second language users.
The first problem one encounters when teaching ESP is
not why their students need English. It might help them to become good computer
engineers, for instance. (Although passing examinations is often the only
objective.) It is more problematic to find out how students will use English in
the relevant setting. If the language learners are university students who go
to lectures and seminars in English, they will probably have to develop their
listening comprehension skills, they will need practice in writing term papers
in English, giving oral presentations in English, etc. If the language learners
need English for their present or future job, the teacher should be aware of
what this job is supposed to be and what it will most probably entail.
Some authors [Tarone and Yule, 1989] suggest that
needs analysis be conducted on the part of the teacher so that “the learners’
purposes in learning the second language” [ibid.: 40] are identified. If this
can be done, teachers will know in what situations the learners will need the
language as well as what kind of language-related activities are typical of
these situations. The concept of “situation”, however, is not easily definable,
as Widdowson [1973] points out. Moreover, what is important is to extract those
features of the situation which are relevant to the communication process and
which govern the choice of certain linguistic elements: “We do not want him
[i.e. the language learner] to associate all
of the language with just one situation:
we want him to recognize which features of the situation are relevant in making
particular linguistic elements appropriate ones to use.” [ibid.: 223].
Therefore, it is important to establish those features of the situation
functioning as conditions which determine the communicative value of linguistic
elements. Broadly speaking, what Widdowson [1973] proposes amounts to the
following: 1) utilization of language learners’ existing knowledge, namely
knowledge of the formal properties of English and extra-linguistic knowledge
embracing knowledge of various sciences, and 2) an extension of language
learners’ experience in language, that is in English and in their mother
tongue. This means that language learners with some degree of formal
instruction in English will be able to transfer what they know of the way their
native language is used as a means of communication in science to the foreign
language, i.e. to English. In this way, “English structures, previously
manipulated as formal objects, can be used to fulfill functions previously only
associated with the other language [i.e. the mother tongue]” [Widdowson, 1973: 228].
Needs analysis and the idea of language teaching
materials based on linguistic functions, rather than structures, seem to be
quite relevant to teaching ESP. However, needs analysis will be more
superficial when learners share the same broader field of language usage and
use but differ in their specializations. Consider a student specializing in commercial
law and a student majoring in international law or two Food Technology
students, one specializing in wine and beer production, the other one in the
production of bread and baked goods. In both cases, teachers of English will
probably stick to those areas of language usage and use which will be of help
to both students and which characterize the broader field. This means that
other areas will certainly be neglected and this is something teachers and
learners are to be aware of.
A related problem is the degree to which ESP teachers
are acquainted with the respective science or occupation. Are they aware of the functions bearing
communicative value in specialized discourse? Teachers of English are not
expected to be experts in every sphere of knowledge but their students do not
always understand this. (This is quite applicable to some societies where
teachers are perceived as omniscient figures in accordance with the traditional
view that they are the ultimate authority in the classroom.) A simple proof is
some students’ expectation that language teachers are obliged to know every
single word in the dictionary and translate isolated words into and from the
foreign language. Similarly, language learners studying Business English, for
instance, might expect their teacher to know something about company types and
their differences, company management, e-banking, etc. In addition, not all
language teachers are acquainted with the linguistic conventions characterizing,
let us say, business letters. It turns out that in the ESP classroom it is the
language learners who possess the necessary real-world knowledge relevant to
the language learning process. It is obvious that English teachers cannot amass
all extra-linguistic knowledge they need to design a successful ESP syllabus.
The question, which is rather a matter of degree, is evidently unanswerable:
What is the minimal knowledge language teachers should have in order to choose
content pertinent to the purposes of learning?
The question of field-specific extra-linguistic
knowledge also applies to language learners studying some subtype of ESP
because it is preferable for them to be at least basically acquainted with the
profession or science they need the second language for. If they are university
students, it is relevant to decide in which year of their university education
they should be enrolled for the ESP course. Otherwise, it may turn out that
English classes introduce specialized knowledge before the seminars and
lectures in the respective discipline. This is an important decision since it
seems that the greater the experience of the language learners in the given
science or occupation, the less the pressure on the language teachers to
possess a sufficient amount of field-specific knowledge. (Although such
knowledge is only an advantage.)
It is obvious that ESP teachers have plenty of issues
to address before picking up appropriate teaching materials. When dealing with
university students, language teachers sometimes face the problem of designing
an ESP syllabus for language learners whose General English proficiency is
quite underdeveloped. In some cases, the situation is aggravated by students’
lack of sufficient specialized knowledge. Since language functions as a system,
ESP cannot be taught in isolation, i.e. language learners are supposed to be able
to communicate in English, however rudimentary their strategic competence may
be. Very often the addressees of ESP courses are the so-called English language
beginners. Depending on the science or occupation motivating the language
learners, teaching ESP to beginners will be feasible in varying degrees. For
example, with English language beginners majoring in Cheese Production, the
language teacher cannot always use visual aids in the classroom. What kind of
picture or photograph will he or she choose in order to elicit “This is whey”,
let alone explain what whey is, or make the students identify the parts of
cheese-making equipment? The language teacher might opt for an introductory
language course first or base the course on an easier-to-grasp general-science
content. See, for example, Luizova-Horeva’s [2010] textbook for freshman
English language learners majoring in Food Technology and Food Engineering. In
view of the students’ different majors, e.g.: Biotechnology, Fermentation
Products Technology, Industrial Heat Engineering, etc., as well as their
varying communicative abilities in English, the author has opted for a gradual
introduction of specialized content:
“1. Going
Places
2. Routines
3. The
University
4. Geometrical
Shapes
5. Measurement
and Calculations
6.
Descriptions
7. Objects and
Functions
8. Actions in
Sequence
9. Food and
Drinks
10. Food
Preparation Appliances
11. History
and Inventions
12. At the
Plant” [Luizova-Horeva, 2010: 3].
Language teachers also have to decide whether they can
cooperate with specialists in the relevant fields of knowledge in order to
design syllabi. Usually, this will not be possible due to time constraints at
least but if it is, such specialists or professionals might help language
teachers come up with a number of typical situations characterizing language
usage and use in the specific field, complemented by basic jargon and text
types, e.g.: memoranda, scientific abstracts, business letters, claims for just
satisfaction, etc. Then, language teachers might design an ESP syllabus
grounding it on the theoretical framework of a teaching method, e.g.: Total
Physical Response, Audiolingual Method, Communicative Language Teaching, etc.,
or on a combination of several methods, depending on the language learners’
needs.
It should also be pointed out that language learners
are not always aware of what they need to learn in the second language.
Therefore, it might be more expedient to couple the language learners’ needs
analysis with the study of individuals who have already begun to use the second
language to communicate in their job or enhance their professional development
in the field in which the language learners will need the second language.
Classroom activities
Having conducted needs analysis, ESP teachers are to
decide what kind of classroom activities are most suitable for the language
learners with respect to their age, their present or future career development,
their needs and their expectations regarding the learning process. The issue
here is whether these activities should be based on a concrete teaching method.
If so, which one should the language teacher select as most appropriate? Are
innovative methods to be preferred to more traditional ones? It seems that
teaching ESP can sometimes follow more downtrodden paths: a language teacher
may choose to employ the Grammar Translation method if he or she knows that the
language learners will need English not as a means of interpersonal communication
but in order to update their professional knowledge by reading specialized
literature. However, it might be better to adopt what Tarone and Yule [1989]
describe as an eclectic approach. It consists in picking procedures, exercises,
and techniques from different methods. This is what is actually done with
mixed-ability groups of language learners because language teachers try to make
their lessons useful to everybody in class.
Despite the possible disadvantage of devising “a
hodgepodge of conflicting classroom activities assembled on whim rather than
upon any principled basis” [ibid.: 10], the eclectic approach in ESP classes
might not allow the development of one skill or ability to the detriment of
another. Moreover, to disregard particular aspects of language usage and use in
language teaching is potentially dangerous because language learners’ needs are
not fixed or unchangeable. They are fluid and depend on social factors,
especially on the roles individuals assume in their everyday lives, e.g.:
student, father, computer engineer, etc. It also goes without saying that some
skills and abilities are best mastered before or after other skills and
abilities, e.g.: one cannot learn how to write business letters in English
before learning to read and comprehend simple texts in this language.
Therefore, ESP teaching materials are likely to be
more productive when they pay attention to both language usage and language
use. According to Widdowson [1978], the former demonstrates the language user’s
knowledge of linguistic rules, whereas language use manifests the language user’s
ability to communicate effectively. Language use is thus connected with what has
been defined as strategic competence: “the ability to transmit information to a
listener and correctly interpret information received” together with the
ability “to deal with problems which may arise in the transmission of this
information” [Tarone and Yule, 1989: 103].
In ESP teaching materials, language usage is reflected
in the presentation and drilling of those features considered typical of occupational
or scientific discourse: field-specific vocabulary, adherence to certain
conventions when structuring and composing written texts and participating in
face-to-face interaction, syntactic and morphological constructions which are
perceived to appear more frequently in such discourse. As regards EST,
classroom activities focusing on language usage usually practice the Passive
Voice, modal verbs, conditional sentences, the Simple Present Tense and the
Simple Past Tense, the article, Greek and Latin plurals, specific patterns of
word formation, etc. [see Gramley and Pätzold, 1992].
To disregard linguistic rules by focusing solely on
communicative abilities is dangerous because the language learners might stop
paying attention to rules if they think that they can communicate effectively
without producing correct and appropriate utterances. Therefore, ESP teaching
materials cannot disregard grammar altogether. The question is how linguistic
rules should be presented, having in mind that they do not usually have a
categorical character but a probabilistic one because more often than not there
are exceptions. This is an example of how grammatical rules are traditionally
presented: In English, monosyllabic adjectives form the comparative degree by
adding –er; small is a monosyllabic adjective; hence, the comparative is smaller. The teacher usually goes on to
explain that there are exceptions to the rule, e.g.: the comparative of good is not gooder, as the rule above implies, but better, etc. In turn, the deductive presentation of linguistic
usage can be dangerous if it makes language learners arrive at wrong rules. It
seems best, then, to present linguistic usage explicitly as regards word
formation, syntactic and discourse organization (although with ESP formal
knowledge of rules can be practiced in various ways, as will be seen below).
The traditional way of presenting grammar has been
widely criticized. See, for instance, Wilkins [in Coulthard, 1992] who raises
the question as to how much attention should be paid to grammatical rules and
proposes a functional-communicative syllabus based on the following six
functions: judgement and evaluation; suasion; argument; rational enquiry and
exposition; personal emotions; and emotive relations, each of which is sub
classified [ibid.: 151]. Apart from the fact that it is not quite clear what a
function is, one might ask oneself why the traditional way of dealing with
linguistic usage, i.e. present > drill
> practice in context [ibid.: 156], is perceived so inadequate,
especially having in mind that so many have studied foreign languages “the
old-fashioned way” and have achieved a satisfactory proficiency level.
Some authors, e.g.: Willis [in Coulthard, 1992], point
out that some classroom activities such as discussion and role play are considered
communicative but they are, in fact, pseudo-communicative. Subsumed under simulation, such activities are compared
with replication ones, e.g.: solving
problems or playing games, which are thought to create situations “in which
there is a real need for communication in order to achieve something else”
[ibid.: 158]. The so-called citation activities
like repeating, combining, and transforming [ibid.: 157] are suggested as the
second step in the learning process consisting in the sequence replication > citation > simulation
[ibid.: 158], the stage at which certain linguistic items are taught explicitly
and then practiced in simulation exercises. As an example is given a
replication exercise “concerned with distinguishing and matching shapes” which
“will naturally lead into citation exercises concerned with the specific lexis
of size and shape and the grammar of nominal group structure” [Willis in
Coulthard, 1992: 159].
Along these lines of thought, one wonders if it is at
all possible to devise ESP classroom activities which imitate closely real-life
communication. This cannot happen simply because these activities will be
performed in the classroom. Teachers are unlikely to possess so much time and
resources to be able to take their students to business meetings, production
plants, chemistry laboratories, etc. in order to “plunge” them in real-life
situations and monitor they way they communicate. In addition, the very
presence of the teacher suggests artificiality.
It also seems that simulation exercises are useful in
ESP classes and are interesting to language learners. Provided that the teacher
manages to control the topic, he or she may witness heated discussions in which
students express a few of the functions Wilkins talks about. For law students,
for example, it will be helpful to participate in mock trials in English for
the same reason. Language learners forget the artificiality of the
communication task if it is in accordance with their real-life interests. In
this case, classroom activities will have a communicative outcome and will be
brought closer to real-life situations.
The replication/citation/simulation sequence might
prove to be suitable for some ESP classes, especially with some types of
replication activities, as in Willis’s example, but it is unclear whether
language teachers can apply replication exercises to everything they want to
teach and with every language learner. If for various reasons the language
learners do not have the capacity to perform the replication activity, e.g.:
solve a mathematical problem, it will not lead “naturally” to the citation
exercise introducing the lexis of mathematical operations. Language teachers
might also face greater difficulties thinking of replication activities for
mixed-ability groups of learners or a class of professionals working for the
same company, in the same branch of industry, who do not share the same
occupation.
It might be better to envisage a compromise via which
language learners’ needs and expectations coupled with the purposes of each
individual lesson will determine whether citation, replication, or simulation
activities will be used. Certain aspects of grammar or communication might go
well with specific types of activities. Coulthard [1992] makes a point that
greetings, closings, invitations, and presequences can only be practiced
through simulation. The communicative value of citation activities like
transformation exercises, e.g.: turning sentences from Active into Passive
Voice, and conversion exercises, e.g.: changing tenses, can be manifested by
their contextualization. This appears to be applicable to teaching ESP,
especially EST, because citation activities can be used to teach language
learners to create various kinds of discourse units. Widdowson [1978], for example,
talks about a procedure called gradual
approximation consisting in the development of a series of simple accounts,
considered to be genuine instances of discourse, their complexity gradually
increasing. One of Widdowson’s suggestions is this:
1. the language learner is asked to do a completion
exercise, e.g.: a sequence of topic-related sentences with present-tense forms
of verbs to be provided; the sentences can be based on diagrammatically
presented information such as a chart;
2. the language learner is asked to do a
transformation exercise, e.g.: combine the completed sentences in pairs, one of
them becoming relative clause;
3. the language learner is asked to create a simple
account, i.e. arrange the sentences into a paragraph [ibid.]. Gradual approximation
can be useful in ESP classes because it is based on a linguistic and a
non-linguistic source of information, the former showing the language learner
the linguistic usage and the latter the communicative context of the activity.
In teaching ESP, it seems that most motivating and
productive is the strategy to use visual aids when possible because they invoke
associations with the extra-linguistic reality determining the language
learners’ needs to study Special English. Such exercises may necessitate
extra-linguistic knowledge and will thus be less artificial communicatively if
one follows the scale of artificiality mentioned above with reference to
citation, replication, and simulation classroom activities. Visual aids include
maps, tables, formulae, various types of charts, and pictures and photographs
of objects, apparatus, etc. These are especially useful when teaching EST
because they constitute some of the most typical means of presenting and
organizing information in written scientific discourse. Here are some
suggestions as to how to use visual aids in the ESP classroom.
Arranging
terms in tables can be used to elicit vocabulary items and can be
combined with the presentation of new lexis. For instance, the headings of the
table columns may denote qualities of foods and learners may be encouraged to
think of meals and drinks possessing these qualities. The activity can be
combined with practice of the structures “I dislike/hate/detest/loathe/can’t
stand… because it is (not)…” and “I like/love/adore…because it is (not)…”,
e.g.:
|
lumpy
|
chewy
|
fizzy
|
sour
|
spicy
|
rank
|
|
cottage cheese
|
sweets
|
beer
|
lemon
|
curry
|
butter
|
|
…
|
…
|
…
|
…
|
…
|
…
|
Doing
crossword puzzles may be used to recall definitions and specialized
vocabulary. Crosswords refer to extra-linguistic knowledge and practice
spelling. Here is an example of a task in which learners have to fill in the
crossword in the way it is shown below:
“IV. Do the following crossword puzzle with words from the text.
Horizontally:
- lyophilisation,
a method of drying in which the material is frozen and subjected to high
vacuum (n.)
- a synonym
of “constituent” (n.)
- a synonym
of “appear” (v.)
- the verb
denoting the mathematical operation in 4 : 2 = 2 (v.)
- scatter,
spread; cause particles to separate uniformly throughout a solid, liquid,
or gas (v.)
- the
mutual influence of chemical agents (n.)
- the
result of division; the number of times one quantity is contained in
another (n.)
- water
content, wetness (n.)
- release
by secretion (v.)
- make a
hole, pierce, perforate (v.)
- the result of water evaporation (n.)
- existing within the cell (adj.)
- spoilage, e.g.: of food (n.)
- immerse foods in salty solutions to
protect them from spoilage (v.)
- minute fungi on vegetable or animal
matter (n.)
- the quality of being hard and easily
breakable, the opposite of being soft and wilted (n.)
Vertically: 1. You will
get the group of methods protecting food from spoilage.” [Choroleeva, 2009: 16,
17].
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Alternatively, learners may be asked to create their
own crosswords for other learners to solve.
Drawing
can be used to practice defining concepts or objects and to check listening
or reading comprehension skills. For example, language learners may be asked to
draw the object on the basis of the definition they hear or read, e.g.: This is
a cone-shaped utensil with a tube at one end, or they may be given a picture or
a photograph of the object in order to give a definition. In both cases, there
is a non-verbal presentation of information and a transition from verbal to
non-verbal mode or vice versa, a procedure Widdowson [1978] calls information transfer. Information
transfer develops comprehension and interpreting when it is oriented from
verbal to non-verbal mode; in the reverse direction, it practices writing and
composing. Here is another example practicing lexis denoting shapes and
location:
“Read this description and draw the diagram which it
describes:
At the top of
the diagram there are two horizontal parallel straight lines. At the bottom
there is a horizontal spiral. In the middle there is a circle. On each side of
the diagram there is a cross. There are two inverted triangles diagonally above
the circle, one on the left, the other on the right. The triangles are below
the parallel lines. In each triangle there is a dot. Above the spiral and below
the circle there is a square.” [Bates and Dudley-Evans, 1976: 30].
Pictures
or photographs can be used for learners to label constituent parts of
apparatus and various objects or provide descriptions. Widdowson [1973] suggests
an activity in which a specialized text is accompanied by an unlabelled diagram.
The teacher may ask the class to read the text and label the diagram, i.e.
transfer information from the text to the diagram, in order to check the
learners’ reading comprehension skills.
Tarone and Yule [1989] offer another example of how
language teachers can use pictures and photographs: “The speaker sees only one
object (on video or in a photograph) and is instructed to describe that object
so that the listener can identify the object from a set of similar objects.
The listener has a set of three photographs, labeled
A, B, and C, and, following the speaker’s description, has to choose which one
of the photographed objects is being described” [ibid.: 181].
Another option is to use pictures and photographs to
illustrate sequences of events, as in “Read how the Tay Bridge collapsed. Match
the sentences (1-5) with the diagrams (a-e) below” [White, 2003: 23]. Tarone
and Yule [1989] suggest a task in which a language learner watches on video (or
on the computer) how a process, such as the assembly of a piece of equipment,
is being carried out and then has to give an account of the process for another
learner. The latter is shown a set of several photographs related to the
process. Some of the photographs depict stages in the process, others do not. The
second language learner, being the listener in this task, has to choose only
those photographs which are relevant to the described process.
Maps
and various types of charts can
be used to check the language learners’ comprehension skills, to practice numbers,
decimals, etc. The teacher may ask learners to read a text or a set of
sentences on the basis of which they have to draw a map or label a chart. For
example, learners might be given the following text titled Population:
“There were
twelve point one million children aged under sixteen in two thousand: six point
two million boys and five point nine million girls. This is fewer than in
nineteen seventy-one, when there were fourteen point three million children. In
two thousand, thirty per cent of children in the UK were under five, thirty-two
per cent were aged five to nine years and thirty-eight per cent were aged ten
to fifteen. These proportions were similar in the nineteen seventies.”
[White, 2003: 29]. The learners then have to label a
bar chart showing the number of children in the UK in the respective years and
a pie-chart illustrating the proportion of children in different age groups.
Concerning specialized terminology, language teachers
must be aware that some terms are used in several fields of science and
contextual presentation of sense,
rather than dictionary meaning, is
preferable. Also, it is easier to study vocabulary in context, not in
isolation. Specialized terminology tends to be standardized and clear, not
vague, which means that terms can be translated into the native language, so
that no room is left for ambiguity.
Specialized and “catchy” vocabulary can be presented,
for example, via sentence pairs. If the language learners are students majoring in Milk and Dairy
Products Technology, the teacher might present them with a set of sentences
contextualizing some terms and ask the students to tick those sentences where
the terms are applicable in this sense to
the production of cheese, e.g.:
1. Egyptians were the first to knit items of clothing: among the earliest known examples are
colourful wool fragments and cotton socks.
2. Lager beers usually take more time to brew and are aged longer than ales.
3. The Professor invited me into his office to clarify why my term paper had received a
bad mark.
4. I will miss the starter
and order the main meal instead because I am starving.
5. Moulds are
fungi used in the production of bread and wine.
The sentences in which the italicized terms are used
in a sense in which they will most probably appear when talking about cheese
production are 2 and 5: some cheeses are aged and some cheeses have a mouldy
rind. After that, the students might be asked to read another set of sentences where
all of the italicized terms are used
in the context of cheese production, e.g.:
1. After being drained, the curds are allowed to knit so that the desired cheese moisture
and texture can be achieved.
2. The hydrolysis of protein during ageing contributes to the development of
a softer body and aromatic flavour of cheese.
3. Milk is clarified
because in this way extraneous matter can be removed and the texture and
flavour of the cheese will be improved.
4. A starter
(culture) of lactic acid-producing bacteria is added to warm milk.
5. Blue cheeses like Roquefort are produced by adding
the Penicillium mould to the curd or by
injecting it into the cheese.
The second set of sentences is compared with the first
one, in which the italicized terms in examples 1, 3 and 4 were used in a sense
irrelevant to the context of cheese production. The second set of sentences may
be presented in the form of jumbled phrases to be arranged. The students might
then be asked to put the sentences in the order in which the respective stages
in the manufacture of cheese will appear. The correct order of the sentences is
3, 4, 1, 5, and 2, i.e. milk clarification, addition of starter culture,
knitting of curds, addition of mould, and ageing of cheese. The students may
also be asked to think of the missing steps in cheese preparation, which in
this case will be cutting, cooking, salting, and pressing the curds. (Draining
is mentioned in sentence 1.) In this way, the teacher will introduce the
unfamiliar terms by making the students use their extra-linguistic knowledge.
Conclusion
In summary, teaching ESP is inspired by teaching EFL
and ESL but the peculiarities of the various types of Special English may give
rise to great many approaches to the learning process, especially having in
mind the fluid needs of the language learners. The problematic aspects of
teaching ESP may come from:
1. the teachers’ insufficient extra-linguistic
knowledge relevant to the learning process which may be accompanied by their insufficient
awareness of the functions having communicative value in specialized discourse;
2. the language learners’ insufficient strategic
competence in General English which may be accompanied with insufficient
extra-linguistic knowledge relevant to the learning process;
3. the lack of adequate teaching materials in ESP and
the necessity to design a needs-oriented ESP syllabus;
4. the choice of field-oriented content in the
teaching materials;
5. the selection of appropriate classroom activities;
6. the necessity to pick up teaching materials
suitable for mixed-ability groups of learners as well as for groups of learners
with different individual needs.
Notwithstanding the problems mentioned above, one
hopes that applied linguists’ insights and the undiminished motivation of
teachers and language learners will contribute to the enhancement of ESP
teaching methodologies because learning language is always learning with a
purpose.
References
Bates M., T. Dudley-Evans, (1976) Nucleus. English for
Science and Technology. General Science, Longman
Choroleeva K., (2009) English for Food Science, UFT
Academic Publishing House, Plovdiv
Coulthard M., (1992) An Introduction to Discourse
Analysis, Longman
Gramley S., K. Pätzold, (1992) A Survey of Modern
English, Routledge
Luizova-Horeva T., (2010) English for Technology and
Engineering Students at the UFT, UFT Academic Publishing House, Plovdiv
Spolsky B., (1998) Sociolinguistics, OUP
Tarone E., G. Yule, (1989) Focus on the Language
Learner. Approaches to Identifying and Meeting the Needs of Second Language
Learners, OUP
White L., (2003)
Engineering Workshop, OUP
Widdowson H. G., (1973) An Applied Linguistic Approach
to Discourse Analysis, unpublished PhD thesis, at <http://www.teachingenglish.org.uk/try/uk-publishers/oup/applied-linguistic-approach-discourse-analysis>
Widdowson H. G., (1978) Teaching Language as
Communication, OUP
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